Batteries For Hybrid Vehicles Research Articles

Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties analysis in dissimilar ultrasonic metal welding of aluminum to copper

Ultrasonic metal welding is a solid-state welding process being widely employed for joining the interconnections of lithium-ion batteries in hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles. Examining the microstructure of the joint is of crucial importance to evaluate the performance. This analysis allows a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena influencing the joint strength. In this study, ultrasonic welding was utilized to join copper to aluminum sheets of 0.3 mm thickness, and then the macro- and microstructural characteristics of the weld cross-section and interface were thoroughly investigated. Finally, the microstructural changes at different values of ultrasonic welding parameters were correlated with the mechanical strength characteristics. This research identified mechanical interlocking and interface diffusion as the primary welding mechanisms. With an increase in welding time from 0.2 to 0.8 s, the bond density rose, the post-weld thickness decreased, and the average Vickers hardness at various points along the weld interface decreased by 10%.

Regeneration of Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Batteries: State-of-the-Art Review, Current Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Batteries have been integral components in modern vehicles, initially powering starter motors and ensuring stable electrical conditions in various vehicle systems and later in energy sources of drive electric motors. Over time, their significance has grown exponentially with the advent of features such as “Start & Stop” systems, micro hybridization, and kinetic energy regeneration. This trend culminated in the emergence of hybrid and electric vehicles, where batteries are the energy source of the electric traction motors. The evolution of storage for vehicles has been driven by the need for larger autonomy, a higher number of cycles, lower self-discharge rates, enhanced performance in extreme temperatures, and greater electrical power extraction capacity. As these technologies have advanced, so have they the methods for their disposal, recovery, and recycling. However, one critical aspect often overlooked is the potential for battery reuse once they reach the end of their useful life. For each battery technology, specific regeneration methods have been developed, aiming to restore the battery to its initial performance state or something very close to it. This focus on regeneration holds significant economic implications, particularly for vehicles where batteries represent a substantial share of the overall cost, such as hybrid and electric vehicles. This paper conducts a comprehensive review of battery technologies employed in vehicles from their inception to the present day. Special attention is given to identifying common failures within these technologies. Additionally, the scientific literature and existing patents addressing regeneration methods are explored, shedding light on the promising avenues for extending the life and performance of automotive batteries.

Control of Fuel Lithium Battery Hybrid Vehicle Power Supply System and Vehicle Energy Management Strategy

<p>The main research object of this article is the increasing number of new energy vehicles, focusing on the energy management issues of new energy vehicles. Firstly, a real car model was established: an engine mathematical model, an electric motor mathematical model, and a power battery mathematical model. Then, in order to achieve optimal management of vehicle energy management, an algorithm model for vehicle energy dynamic planning was established with the goal of minimizing energy consumption. Finally, simulation experiments were conducted to verify the performance improvement of the proposed algorithm in vehicle energy management.</p> <p> </p>

Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Battery Technologies: Advancements and Challenges

This study investigates the ever-evolving realm of electric and hybrid vehicle battery technologies, encompassing their advancements, challenges, and profound implications. Lithium-ion batteries, renowned for their heightened energy density and extended life cycles, serve as the cornerstone of electric and hybrid vehicles. Ongoing research endeavors drive innovations such as silicon anodes and solid-state electrolytes, offering the promise of improved efficiency and performance. Nonetheless, substantial hurdles emerge, including the scarcity and price volatility of critical materials like cobalt and nickel, which have the potential to obstruct the scalability of electric vehicles. Environmental concerns associated with battery production and disposal necessitate sustainable solutions, while energy density limitations persist, impacting driving range and charging times and urging the pursuit of breakthroughs. These technologies are reshaping the automotive sector, driven by global emissions regulations and incentives that accelerate the transition toward cleaner transportation. Electric and hybrid vehicles hold the potential to significantly curtail greenhouse gas emissions and combat air pollution, aligning seamlessly with worldwide sustainability objectives. Addressing these challenges is pivotal to fully realizing the potential of electric and hybrid vehicle battery technologies, paving the way for a cleaner and more ecologically mindful era of transportation.

Cell Fault Identification and Localization Procedure for Lithium-Ion Battery System of Electric Vehicles Based on Real Measurement Data

Vehicle safety risk can be decreased by diagnosing the lithium-ion battery system of electric road vehicles. Real-time cell diagnostics can avoid unexpected occurrences. However, lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles can significantly differ in design, capacity, and chemical composition. In addition, the battery monitoring systems of the various vehicles are also diverse, so communication across the board is not available or can only be achieved with significant difficulty. Hence, unique type-dependent data queries and filtering are necessary in most cases. In this paper, a Volkswagen e-Golf electric vehicle is investigated; communication with the vehicle was implemented via an onboard diagnostic port (so-called OBD), and the data stream was recorded. The goal of the research is principally to filter out, identify, and localize defective/weak battery cells. Numerous test cycles (constant and dynamic measurements) were carried out to identify cell abnormalities (so-called deviations). A query and data filtering process was designed to detect defective battery cells. The fault detection procedure is based on several cell voltage interruptions at various loading levels. The methodology demonstrated in this article uses a fault diagnosis technique based on voltage abnormalities. In addition, it employs a hybrid algorithm that executes calculations on measurement and recorded data. In the evaluation, a status line comprising three different categories was obtained by parametrizing and prioritizing (weighting) the individual measured values. It allows the cells to be divided into the categories green (adequate region), yellow (to be monitored), and red (possible error). In addition, several querying strategies were developed accordingly to clarify and validate the measurement results. The several strategies were examined individually and analyzed for their strengths and weaknesses. Based on the results, a data collection, processing, and evaluation strategy for an electric vehicle battery system have been developed. The advantage of the developed algorithm is that the method can be adapted to any electric or hybrid vehicle battery.

A Critical Analysis of Helical and Linear Channel Liquid Cooling Designs for Lithium-Ion Battery Packs

Thermal management systems are integral to electric and hybrid vehicle battery packs for maximising safety and performance since high and irregular battery temperatures can be detrimental to these criteria. Lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used in the electric vehicle (EV) industry because of their high energy and power density and long life cycle. Liquid cooling provides superior performance with low power draw and high heat transfer coefficient. Two liquid cooling designs-the Linear Channel Design (LCD) and Helical Channel Design (HCD)-underwent multiple numerical and geometrical optimisations, where inlet mass flow rate, channel diameter, and inlet and outlet locations were analysed using CFD (computational fluid dynamics). The primary objectives were to maintain maximum temperatures and thermal uniformity within the operational limits derived from the literature. These were both achieved with the LCD using a mass flow rate of 7.50E-05 kgs−1. The Tmax goal was met for the HCD but not the thermal uniformity goal. The LCD achieved 1.796 K lower in maximum temperature and 8.740 K lower in temperature difference compared to the HCD, proving itself superior in both metrics. The HCD required a higher mass flow rate than the LCD to regulate temperatures, resulting in an undesirably high power consumption.

Presentation of the New Method for Simultaneous Estimation of the Parameters and the Charge Situation of Used Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles

Presentation of the New Method for Simultaneous Estimation of the Parameters and the Charge Situation of Used Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles

A cost of ownership analysis of batteries in all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles

The ever-faster transformation of road vehicles from traditional fuel engines to electric motors, is leading to increasingly widespread research on and development of electric vehicles and related infrastructures. In this context, this article addresses the cost aspect of batteries from the owner’s perspective. Specifically, it proposes an analysis of the optimal usage cost of batteries in order to maximize the benefit-cost ratio and battery replacement intervals. In order to analyze battery degradation, various tests were utilized for both a full-battery electric vehicle (BEV) and a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). The results demonstrate greater wear of the PHEV battery when the vehicle is under charge-sustaining mode, that is, when using the combustion engine, while driving with frequent starts and stops. On the other hand, the degradation costs of the BEV battery are generally close to optimal in every scenario, in which the main parameter affecting battery wear is average daily mileage.

One-Step Solvometallurgical Process for Purification of Lithium Chloride to Battery Grade

The use of lithium in manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries for hybrid and electric vehicles, along with stringent environmental regulations, have strongly increased the need for its sustainable production and recycling. The required purity of lithium compounds used for the production of battery components is very high (> 99.5%). In this work, a solvometallurgical process that exploits the differences in solubility between LiCl and other alkali and alkaline-earth chlorides and hydroxides in ethanolic solutions has been investigated for the purification of LiCl to battery grade at room temperature. A closed-loop flowsheet based on the green solvent ethanol is proposed for purification of LiCl, a precursor for battery-grade LiOH·H2O. High-purity LiCl solution (> 99.5% Li) could be obtained in a single-process step comprising the simultaneous selective dissolution of LiCl and the precipitation of Mg(OH)2 and Ca(OH)2 using LiOH·H2O in 95 vol% ethanol. However, the analogous process in aqueous solution resulted in impure LiCl (typically less than about 75%).Graphical

A Study of Control Methodologies for the Trade-Off between Battery Aging and Energy Consumption on Electric Vehicles with Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

Hybrid and electric vehicle batteries deteriorate from use due to irreversible internal chemical and mechanical changes, resulting in decreased capacity and efficiency of the energy storage system. This article investigates the modeling and control of a lithium-ion battery and ultracapacitor hybrid energy storage system for an electric vehicle for improved battery lifespan and energy consumption. By developing a control-oriented aging model for the energy storage components and integrating the aging models into an energy management system, the trade-off between battery degradation and energy consumption can be minimized. This article produces an optimal aging-aware energy management strategy that controls both battery and ultracapacitor aging and compares these results to strategies that control only battery aging, strategies that control battery aging factors but not aging itself, and non-optimal benchmark strategies. A case study on an electric bus with variously-sized hybrid energy storage systems shows that a strategy designed to control battery aging, ultracapacitor aging, and energy losses simultaneously can achieve a 28.2% increase to battery lifespan while requiring only a 7.0% decrease in fuel economy.

Hardware-in-the-Loop Assessment of a Data-Driven State of Charge Estimation Method for Lithium-Ion Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles

This paper presents the design and hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experimental validation of a data-driven estimation method for the state of charge (SOC) in the lithium-ion batteries used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). The considered system features a 1.25 kWh 48 V lithium-ion battery that is numerically modeled via an RC equivalent circuit model that can also consider the environmental temperature influence. The proposed estimation technique relies on nonlinear autoregressive with exogenous input (NARX) artificial neural networks (ANNs) that are properly trained with multiple datasets. Those datasets include modeled current and voltage data, both for charge-sustaining and charge-depleting working conditions. The investigated method is then experimentally validated using a Raspberry Pi 4B card-sized board, on which the estimation algorithm is actually deployed, and real-time hardware, on which the battery model is developed, namely a Speedgoat baseline platform. These hardware platforms are used in a hardware-in-the-loop architecture via the UPD communication protocol, allowing the system to be validated in a proper testing environment. The resulting estimation algorithm can estimate the battery SOC in real-time, with 2% accuracy during real-time hardware testing.

Life cycle assessment on the reuse and recycling of the nickel‐metal hydride battery: Fleet‐based study on hybrid vehicle batteries from Japan

AbstractWith the increasing popularity of hybrid vehicles, which were initially commercialized from Japan, the use of nickel‐metal hydride (NiMH) batteries has also increased dramatically. This will inevitably lead to a large number of NiMH batteries in the future. This makes the reuse and recycling of these waste NiMH batteries an urgent concern. Nevertheless, the environmental burden generated from the reuse and recycling processes has not been clarified. Moreover, many NiMH batteries are exported from Japan to developing countries and will eventually be landfilled. Such problems severely weaken the efficiency of the waste battery recycling system in Japan. This research aims to analyze the environmental impact of a NiMH battery under each type of waste treatment strategy using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. Then, a fleet‐based LCA is performed to show how exactly the collection rate of waste batteries affects the efficiency of the recycling industry. The results show that, if we can reuse or recycle a waste NiMH battery instead of it being directly landfilled, the absolute environmental impact of the NiMH battery can be decreased. Especially in the reuse and recycle scenario, approximately 83 kg of CO2 emissions, 1.37 kg of resource depletion, 0.044 m3 of landfill volume, and 1611 MJ energy consumption will be conserved for each NiMH battery. Moreover, the efficiency of the Japanese recycling industry would significantly improve if more waste NiMH batteries can be recycled or reused in Japan instead of being exported to developing countries.

Materials selection for hybrid and electric vehicle battery pack thermal management: A review

This paper reviews materials for hybrid and electric vehicles battery pack thermal management required for efficient working of batteries in any climate conditions. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cells are being used for electric or hybrid vehicles because they having high density of energy and long life cycle. Battery lifetime and performance of Li-ion batteries depends on operating temperature. The higher operating temperature increases capacity and decreases life of Battery. Thermal management strategies which are based on air, water, phase change material (PCM) and heat pipe are discussed and compared. After comparison, an efficient system of temperature management for battery pack is discussed. Phenomena of creating heat and temperature issues of Li-ion batteries are discussed in this paper. Then different strategies are reviewed and classified based on thermal cycle options. Improving the existing temperature control system and testing new technologies to reduce thermal issues is necessary, and efforts should be made to prioritize the thermal management system to improve temperature uniformity throughout battery pack, life of battery, and increase protection to battery packs.

An improved mini-channel based liquid cooling strategy of prismatic LiFePO4 batteries for electric or hybrid vehicles

Li-ion batteries are one of the most widely used energy storage devices owing to their relatively high energy density and power, yet they confront heating issues that lead to electrolyte fire and thermal runaway, especially in automotive applications. A well-designed thermal management system is necessary to mitigate the thermal issues occurring in high charge/discharge conditions. Keeping this in view, an ingeniously designed rectangular mini-channel cold plate is proposed to sandwich in between two consecutive 7Ah prismatic lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries with a provision of coolant flow through the mini-channels across the cold plate to form a battery module. A numerical model for the varying channel number, channel width, coolant flow rate, coolant and ambient temperature, etc. to uphold the battery module temperature within the range of 25 °C-40 °C is developed in COMSOL Multiphysics 5.4. A detailed thermodynamic analysis suggests that a cold plate comprising 5 mini channels of width 4 mm with parallel flow design, and water entry near to the charging port with a flow rate of 0.003 kg.s − 1 and temperature of 25 °C as the ideal trade-off between heat transfer and pressure drop for better thermal management across the battery module. A uniform heat propagation in longitudinal direction justifies the optimum design of the cold plate.

Mathematical Heat Transfer Modeling and Experimental Validation of Lithium-Ion Battery Considering: Tab and Surface Temperature, Separator, Electrolyte Resistance, Anode-Cathode Irreversible and Reversible Heat

The temperature and heat produced by lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric and hybrid vehicles is an important field of investigation as it determines the power, performance, and cycle life of the battery pack. This paper presented both laboratory data and simulation results at C-rates of 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C at an ambient temperature of approximately 23 °C. During experiment thermocouples were placed on the surface of the battery. The thermal model assumed constant current discharge and was experimentally validated. It was observed that temperature increased with C-rates at both the surface and the tabs. We note that at 4C the battery temperature increased from 22 °C to 47.40 °C and the tab temperature increased from 22 °C to 52.94 °C. Overall, the simulation results showed that more heat was produced in the cathode than the anode, the primary source of heat was the electrolyte resistance, and the battery temperature was the highest near the tabs and in the internal space of the battery. Simulation of the lithium concentration within the battery showed that the lithium concentration was more uniform in the anode than in the cathode. These results can help the accurate thermal design and thermal management of Li-ion batteries.

Energy Management Strategy for Fuel Cell and Battery Hybrid Vehicle Based on Fuzzy Logic

In order to improve fuel economy and enhance operating efficiency of fuel cell hybrid vehicles (FCHVs), fuzzy logic control (FLC) strategies are available and suggested for adoption. In this paper, the powertrain of a fuel cell hybrid vehicle is designed and the parameters of the motor, battery, and fuel cell are calculated. The FLC strategy and the power following control (PFC) strategy are designed for the studied FCHV. A secondary development for Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR) is implemented based on the standard driving cycles, and a Chinese typical city driving cycle is imported. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed FLC strategy is more valid and reasonable than the traditional PFC strategy. The proposed FLC strategy affects the vehicle characteristics significantly and contributes to better performance in four aspects: fuel economy, efficiency of battery and fuel cell system, battery state of charge (SOC), and battery life. Hence, the FLC strategy is more suitable for the energy management strategy for fuel cell and battery hybrid vehicles.

Nitrogen-Doped Hierarchical Porous Carbon Derived from Bacterial Cellulose-Polyaniline Composite As High Performance Anode for Lithium-Ion Batteries

An ever increasing demand for high energy and high power rating Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) for electric hybrid vehicles persuaded the development of novel electrode materials with large storage capability and faster kinetic process. Carbon nanomaterials, owing to their unique and tunable physical and chemical properties, have been widely investigated as anode materials for LIBs. Diversified strategies involving the synthesis of carbon materials with hierarchical structures (morphology and porosity), and heteroatom doping have shown significant improvement in electrochemical performance of these carbon nanomaterials. In consideration to this, we hereby demonstrate the synthesis and utilization of hierarchical nitrogen-doped porous carbon structures derived from bacterial cellulose-polyaniline nano-composites as a promising anode material for LIBs. Microstructural analysis of the derived carbon revealed the inheritance of fibrous backbone as obtained from bacterial cellulose along with nano-granular structure of polyaniline. The structural and electrochemical properties of as-derived porous carbon structures are analysed systematically by performing XRD, Raman spectroscopy, XPS, cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge/discharge studies and impedance spectroscopy. These results unveiled significantly large reversible capacities of 432, 233, and 127 mAh/g at 1, 5, and 10 C-rate respectively with excellent capacity retention. The energy and power densities of these hierarchical porous carbon structures were increased by 54% and 41% respectively when compared to pure bacterial cellulose derived carbon. This enhanced electrochemical performance may be attributed to the combined effect of interconnected micro-meso porous network of hard carbon along with nitrogen doping. The core-shell structure of this derived carbon accommodates the volume changes during lithium-ion insertion and de-insertion, rendering excellent cyclic stability even at high C rates without causing pulverization.

The choice of a performance criterion for a high-voltage battery of a vehicle

Currently, major vehicle manufacturers are working to improve environmental friendliness by introducing alternative energy in motor vehicles: vehicles with combined power plants (hybrids) based on ICE, electric vehicles based on promising current sources like electrochemical generator based on fuel elements of “hydrogen-air” and traditional electric vehicles. All of the above vehicles use High-voltage battery running. The use of batteries in hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles puts forward certain requirements for them: large specific energy capacity; high resource indicator; fairly low cost. This article seeks a criterion for the performance of a high-voltage battery used as an energy source in electric vehicles. Performed an analysis of scientific publications and experiments describing the dependence of the parameters of the battery on the temperature and operating mode of the vehicle. The main parameters are determined and an assessment of their impact on vehicle performance is carried out.

Determining the technical and economic parameters for designing hybrid power units for the budget segment

The paper addresses the issue of designing environmentally friendly and energy-efficient vehicles in a budget segment based on determining the technical-economic parameters. The fuel efficiency and environmental friendliness of cars have been improved and substantiated through devising a hybrid power system based on the chosen rational technical-economic parameters. We have constructed three-dimensional dependences of energy, consumed by the unit of traction rechargeable batteries, and a relative travel range, on the mass and steady speed. Recommendations have been made on selecting the energy intensity of the unit of traction rechargeable batteries for hybrid vehicles of different mass and the desired travel range under an electricity-only mode. We have established the travel range under an electricity-only mode per a single charge of traction rechargeable batteries within 20 km to 50 km. The choice of a hybrid vehicle has been proposed depending on the expected average daily mileage and the energy intensity of traction rechargeable batteries. This would make it possible for a consumer to make a decision about the choice of a hybrid vehicle based on the individual planned average daily mileage.Conceptual solutions have been developed to construct hybrid power units based on the economic principle of their design. The scientific results have been confirmed in practice using an experimental hybrid concept based on the ZAZ Lanos Pickup. Such an approach makes hybrid vehicles more competitive and economically attractive

Applying chemical heat storage to saving exhaust gas energy in diesel engines: Principle, design and experiment

Abstract Thermal energy storage has become more and more important to improving the overall efficiency of energy systems by utilising the wasted energy. This study was aimed to develop a chemical heat storage (CHS) system using magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and its dehydration and hydration reactions to recover the thermal energy wasted by the exhaust gases in internal combustion (IC) engines. Experiments were conducted on a Diesel engine (D1146TI) to estimate the percentage of exhaust gas energy stored by CHS technology in the heat storage process. In this process, at 80% engine load, 61.4% of chemical material reacted and 5.05% heat energy of exhaust gas was stored in an hour. The percentage of the stored exhaust gas energy decreased with the engine loads. In the heat output process, in one of the proposed applications, the engine intake air was heated with the stored energy by hydrating MgO when the temperature of the inner wall of the reactor (T6) increased from 45 °C to 86.4 °C. The experimental results show that at the ambient temperature 23 °C, the intake air can be heated to the temperature 5.7 °C-17.3 °C higher than the ambient temperature. The applications of CHS to heating the engine, lubricant or batteries in hybrid vehicles are proposed.